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Original Research Communication |
1 From the Department of Clinical Nutrition, University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland (US, LT, and MU); Danisco Ltd, Espoo, Finland (AT); the National Public Health Institute, Helsinki (GA and AA); and Danisco Cultor Innovation, Kantvik, Finland (MS).
2 Supported by Cultor Research Foundation, Espoo, Finland. 3 Address reprint requests to U Schwab, Department of Clinical Nutrition, University of Kuopio, PO Box 1627, 70211 Kuopio, Finland. E-mail: ursula.schwab{at}uku.fi.
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONSUBJECTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Objective: The aim of the study was to examine the effect of betaine supplementation on body weight, body composition, plasma homocysteine concentrations, blood pressure, and serum total and lipoprotein lipids.
Design: Forty-two obese, white subjects (14 men, 28 women) treated with a hypoenergetic diet were randomly assigned to a betaine-supplemented group (6 g/d) or a control group given placebo for 12 wk. The intervention period was preceded by a 4-wk run-in period with a euenergetic diet.
Results: Body weight, resting energy expenditure, and fat mass decreased significantly in both groups with no significant difference between the groups. Plasma homocysteine concentrations decreased in the betaine group (
± SD: 8.76 ± 1.63 µmol/L at 4 wk, 7.93 ± 1.52 µmol/L at 16 wk; P = 0.030 for the interaction of time and treatment). Diastolic blood pressure decreased without a significant difference between the groups. Serum total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations were higher in the betaine group than in the control group (P < 0.05).
Conclusion: A hypoenergetic diet with betaine supplementation (6 g daily for 12 wk) decreased the plasma homocysteine concentration but did not affect body composition more than a hypoenergetic diet without betaine supplementation did.
Key Words: Betaine • blood pressure • body weight • body composition • cholesterol • energy expenditure • folate • homocysteine • humans • lipids • liver enzymes • obesity
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSUBJECTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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20–60 µmol/L, whereas in the liver and kidney, some cells have accumulated greater concentrations (7, 8). Betaine has been used safely in animal feeds for > 25 y. Betaine was first used in fish feeds, especially for salmon and trout, as an attractant and an osmoprotectant during the freshwater-seawater transfer stage (9). Currently, it is also used as an additive in poultry and pig feed, where it functions as a methyl donor and osmoprotectant. There is evidence that betaine can decrease the amount of fat tissue in pigs without affecting the amount of lean tissue (10). The effect of betaine on body composition in humans has not been investigated.
High total concentrations of plasma homocysteine have been shown to be a potential risk factor for cardiovascular diseases (11, 12). Betaine is involved in homocysteine metabolism by the action of the enzyme betaine homocysteine methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.5) (13). Betaine donates methyl groups to homocysteine, which in turn is metabolized to methionine. Betaine itself is metabolized to glycine via dimethyglycine and sarcosine.
Because betaine may help in the treatment of excess body fat and elevated serum homocysteine concentrations, the aim of the present study was to examine the effect of betaine supplementation on body weight, body composition, and resting energy expenditure in healthy obese subjects. We also examined the effects of betaine supplementation on concentrations of plasma homocysteine and serum total and lipoprotein lipids as well as on blood pressure.
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SUBJECTS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSUBJECTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The subjects gave written, informed consent. The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Kuopio and Kuopio University Hospital.
Study design
The study was a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind parallel study. Before the 12-wk intervention period, the subjects participated in a 4-wk run-in period during which they consumed 2 daily servings of 100 g orange juice with 6 g grapefruit juice (one serving in the morning and the other in the evening). The subjects consumed a euenergetic diet during the run-in period. For the intervention period, during which the subjects consumed a hypoenergetic diet (providing 2100 kJ, or 500 kcal, less than their euenergetic diet), the subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups; 22 subjects were placed in the betaine group and 20 in the control group. The subjects were matched for BMI, sex, and menstrual cycle (menopausal status). The hypoenergetic diet consumed during the intervention period was used for motivational purposes, because the subjects were obese and willing to lose weight.
The control group consumed 100 g orange juice twice a day and the betaine group consumed 100 g betaine-enriched orange juice twice a day. The amount of betaine in the enriched juice was 3 g per 100 g orange juice, for a betaine dose of 6 g/d.
The subjects visited the research unit at the beginning of the study (0 wk), at the beginning of the intervention period (4 wk), and 4 times during the intervention period: at 6, 8, 12, and 16 wk. Body weight was measured at each visit. We measured resting energy expenditure and body composition at the 4- and 16-wk visits. Blood pressure, anthropometric measurements, serum total and lipoprotein lipids, and liver enzymes were measured at the 4-, 8-, 12-, and 16-wk visits. Plasma glucose and homocysteine concentrations, serum betaine concentration, and concentrations of erythrocyte and plasma folate were measured at the 4-, 8-, and 16-wk visits. The subjects met with a nutritionist at the 4-, 6-, and 8-wk visits and also at 12 wk if necessary. The nutrition counseling concentrated on reducing the energy content of the diet, modifying the quality of fat, and increasing the intake of dietary fiber.
To monitor the diet, the subjects kept a 4-d food record during the second week of the run-in period and during the second and fourth weeks of the intervention period (weeks 5 and 7). The food records were calculated by use of MICRO-NUTRICA dietary analysis software (The Social Insurance Institution, Helsinki) on the basis of Finnish food analyses and international food-composition tables (14).
Methods
Body weight was measured on the same calibrated electronic scale throughout the study. Resting energy expenditure was measured with the use of indirect calorimetry (Deltatrac metabolic monitor; Datex/Instrumentarium Corp, Helsinki) after a 12-h fast. The results were adjusted for overnight nitrogen excretion. Body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance (BIA 101S with BODYGRAM software; Akern Srl Bioresearch, Florence, Italy) and as a sum of 4 skinfold thicknesses (biceps, triceps, subscapular, and suprailiac) measured with skinfold calipers. The waist circumference was measured halfway between the lowest rib and the iliac crest, and the hip circumference was measured at the broadest part of the hip.
Blood pressure was measured with the use of a mercury sphygmomanometer on the right arm after the subject rested for 5 min in the sitting position. A second measurement was performed at 10 min, and the mean of the 2 measurements was calculated and used for further analyses.
All venous blood samples were drawn after an overnight (12-h) fast. For the analysis of serum total and lipoprotein lipid concentrations, samples underwent ultracentrifugation for 18 h at 4 °C, 144 000 x g, and a density of 1.006 kg/L to remove VLDL. HDL in the infranatant fluid was separated from LDL by the precipitation of LDL with dextran sulfate and magnesium chloride (15). The LDL-cholesterol concentration was calculated as the difference between the mass of cholesterol in the infranatant fluid and the HDL. Enzymatic colorimetric methods and commercial kits (Monotest cholesterol and Triacylglycerol GPO-PAP; Boehringer Mannheim GmbH Diagnostica, Mannheim, Germany) were used to measure cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations from whole serum and separated lipoproteins with an automated instrument (Kone Pro; Kone Instruments, Espoo, Finland).
Serum betaine concentration was analyzed by the use of HPLC as a 4-bromophenacyl triflate derivative (16). Calibration was performed by the standard addition method by spiking a pooled serum sample with standards. The method described by Mar et al (17) was used in synthesizing 4-bromophenacyl triflate.
Total plasma homocysteine was determined with a modification of the HPLC method described by Ubbink et al (18). The modified mobile phase consisted of 0.37 mol acetate/L and 0.5% methanol, pH 4.15. The peak heights were calibrated with the use of a secondary serum standard. The precision between batches (n = 5) for an in-house serum pool was 4.8% at a concentration of 12.3 µmol serum homocysteine/L. The accuracy was verified by participating in an interlaboratory quality-control scheme in which the mean bias was 2.2% for 12 sera ranging from 9.4 to 83 µmol serum homocysteine/L (19).
Folate concentration of plasma and erythrocytes was determined by the fluorescence polarization immunometric method (IMX; Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, IL). The precision between batches (n = 13) was 5.0%.
Plasma glucose concentration was analyzed by the glucose hydrogenase method (Granutest 250; Merck, KgaA, Darmstadt, Germany). The Kone Pro automated instrument was used to measure the concentrations. Plasma insulin concentration was analyzed by a radioimmunoassay method (Phadeseph Insulin RIA 100; Pharmacia Diagnostics, Uppsala, Sweden).
The laboratory personnel were unaware of the randomization group. The subjects were given forms for self-reporting on the level of their physical activity and on the occurrence of side effects. Both were reported 4 times during the intervention period (every 4 wk). The adverse side effects monitored included gastrointestinal illnesses, thirst, feeling of dry mouth, increased urination, and increased preference for salt or salty food.
Statistical analyses
The data were analyzed with the SPSS/PC+ statistics program (V8.0; SPSS Inc, Chicago). Before further analyses, normal distribution of the variables was checked with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test with Lilliefors significance correction. Variables with abnormal distribution [thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 
-glutamyl transferase (EC 2.3.2.9), alanine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.2), asparagine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.1), and triacylglycerol] were log transformed, and the log values were used in further analyses. Two-factor repeated-measures analysis of variance (general linear model in SPSS) was used to examine the interaction between time and treatment and to test for changes within time and treatment. When the interaction of time and treatment was significant, the two-tailed t test was used for comparisons within the groups. Student’s t test was used for between-group comparisons. When the interaction of time and treatment was not significant, the main effect of time was reported. Two-factor repeated-measures analysis of variance (general linear model) with ranks was used to test the changes in fat-free mass (FFM, in kg), FFM (%), and fat mass (%) as measured by bioelectrical impedance because the distribution of these variables did not become normal by log transformation or other arithmetic procedures. The Bonferroni correction was used for multiple comparisons to control the overall alpha level. All data are expressed as mean ± SD. P < 0.05 was considered significant.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSUBJECTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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2 MJ (500 kcal). The proportion of energy obtained from fat decreased, and the amount of saturated fat, in particular, decreased. There were no significant differences in the nutrient intake between the groups during the intervention period (Table 2).
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). The main effect of time was a significant (P < 0.002) difference in triceps, biceps, and suprailiac skinfold thicknesses. Fat mass and FFM calculated from skinfold thicknesses decreased significantly in both groups (P < 0.001 for the main effect of time). The measurements performed with bioelectrical impedance showed a significant decrease (P < 0.001 for the main effect of time) in the fat mass expressed in kg. There were no significant differences between the groups in any of these variables during the intervention.
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), but there was no significant difference between the groups during the intervention period. Systolic blood pressure did not change significantly in either of the groups or differ significantly between the groups during the intervention (Table 4).
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).
Serum betaine concentration
Fasting serum betaine concentration increased in the betaine group (P < 0.001) but did not change significantly in the control group (P < 0.0001 for the interaction of time and treatment). In the betaine group, the serum betaine concentration was > 10-fold that in the placebo group. The concentrations of betaine remained stable, at 20 µmol/L, in subjects in the control group (Figure 1).
Liver enzymes
Fasting serum asparagine aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and -glutamyl transferase concentrations decreased in both groups without a significant difference between the groups during the intervention period (P < 0.05 for the main effect of time; Table 5). The fasting serum alkaline phosphatase concentration showed a tendency to increase in the control group but not in the betaine group (P = 0.008 for the main effect of time).
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Serum TSH and creatinine concentrations were measured at the screening and at the end of the study (16 wk). There were no significant differences in these variables in either of the groups. Mean (± SD) serum TSH values for the control group were 1.8 ± 1.0 mU/L at screening and 1.6 ± 0.7 mU/L at 16 wk, and those for the betaine group were 1.8 ± 0.7 and 1.6 ± 0.7 mU/L, respectively. Mean (± SD) serum creatinine values were 84.0 ± 12.0 and 85.2 ± 11.8 µmol/L in the control group and 87.1 ± 9.7 and 87.1 ± 10.6 µmol/L in the betaine group at screening and at 16 wk, respectively.
Physical activity and side effects
There was no significant difference in the level of physical activity between the groups. The mean frequency was 2–3 times/wk during the intervention period in both groups. No adverse side effects were systematically reported by any of the subjects in either of the groups.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONSUBJECTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Betaine supplementation was found to induce a significant decrease in plasma homocysteine concentration. The present study shows that betaine alone can reduce plasma homocysteine concentrations significantly in healthy subjects whose folate status remained unchanged. Brouwer et al (22) also showed that a daily supplement of 6 g betaine for 3 wk reduced homocysteine values in healthy subjects, yet neither the folate nor the betaine status of the subjects was reported in their study. Patients with homocystinuria are traditionally treated with folic acid and vitamin B-12. However, some patients have received a daily dose of betaine in combination with their vitamin therapy. Tangerman et al (23) reported that betaine alone reduced the plasma homocysteine values in selected patients with homocystinuria. The reduction was > 40% (from 210 to 114 µmol/L). This hereditary disease, usually caused by severe cystathionine ß-synthase (EC 4.2.1.22) deficiency, is very rare. Furthermore, it has no role in the characterization of the epidemiologic role of slightly elevated homocysteine concentrations at the population level.
The reduction of serum homocysteine concentrations in healthy subjects was 9% in the present study. This may be important, because there is evidence for a relation between the plasma homocysteine concentration and the risk of atherosclerotic vascular diseases, especially those related to thrombosis (24, 25). Mildly elevated serum homocysteine concentrations (> 15 µmol/L) may be more common in white populations than was previously believed. The homocysteine concentrations are dependent on both genetic and lifestyle factors. It is well known that folic acid is efficient in lowering plasma homocysteine concentrations, and supplementation with folic acid is widely accepted for that purpose. The reduction in homocysteine concentrations is 11–20% with a daily dose of 250–500 mg folic acid (26). Betaine acts via a different route in homocysteine metabolism, however, and may enhance homocysteine metabolism when the folic acid response is weak.
There was no significant change in systolic blood pressure during the interaction period. However, the main effect of time on diastolic blood pressure was significant: in normotensive subjects participating in the present study, the observed reductions were 4.9 mm Hg in the betaine group and 2.4 mm Hg in the control group. Betaine has the property of being an osmolyte, especially in kidney cells (5). The effect might be more significant in mildly hypertensive subjects than in normotensive subjects. In rats, another osmolyte, taurine, was also shown to have properties of blood pressure reduction (27).
Hyperhomocysteinemia has been reported to be involved in arterial endothelial dysfunction (28). It is associated with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilatation, whereas no effect on endothelium-independent responses has been found (29). Furthermore, oral folate supplementation in patients with hyperhomocysteinemia has been shown to result in a decrease in plasma homocysteine concentrations and to enhance endothelium-dependent responses, whereas endothelium-independent responses remained unchanged (30). These phenomena might be associated with diastolic blood pressure.
The change in serum total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations between the groups was significant. However, the difference (0.4 mmol/L for total cholesterol, 0.3 mmol/L for LDL-cholesterol) was small and of minor clinical significance. The concomitant weight change may also contribute to this marginal difference in serum total and LDL-cholesterol concentrations between the groups.
The present study was performed with a 6-g daily dose of betaine. The amount was chosen according to previously published studies of patients with homocystinuria (31). However, the 6-g dose is supposed to represent the maximum effective dose. It induced a > 10-fold increase in plasma betaine concentrations from the normal range of 20 µmol/L.
No adverse effects of the 6-g daily betaine dose on liver enzymes were found during the 3-mo intervention period. The concentrations of serum alanine aminotransferase and asparagine aminotransferase decreased similarly in both groups, whereas no change was found in serum concentrations of alkaline phosphatase or -glutamyl transferase.
In conclusion, a daily supplement of 6 g betaine for 12 wk along with a hypoenergetic diet decreases plasma homocysteine concentration but does not affect body composition more than a hypoenergetic diet without betaine supplementation does. The study showed that the 6-g daily dose was well tolerated, and no side effects were observed. Further studies are needed to examine the dose response of betaine in the long term.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
; control group (n = 20), •. For the interaction of time and treatment, P < 0.0001 for serum betaine concentrations and P = 0.030 for plasma homocysteine concentrations. In the betaine group, P < 0.001 for betaine concentrations and P < 0.05 for homocysteine concentrations at 4 and 16 wk, respectively. There was no significant interaction of time and treatment in plasma or erythrocyte folate concentrations.